Turtles and Tortoises; the real old-timers

These wonderful animals have been around in pretty much their current form for at least 200 million years. Two hundred and twenty million years ago the first turtles separated off from the other reptiles and have been doing their own thing ever since. It was another hundred million years (would you like a moment to think about that?) before a recognisable crocodile, the other notable vertebrate group which has been around for a very long time in its modern form, made an appearance and doubtless began preying on turtles.

Yellow-spotted River Turtle Podocnemis unifilis, Manu River, Peruvian Amazonia.

For a turtle, the shell's the thing. It comprises a plastron below and a carapace protecting the back. It took them the first twenty million years to get it right, but they had plenty of time and got there in the end. The plastron developed first, to protect swimming proto-turtles from attacks from below. The carapace evolved after turtles came ashore. Segments of ribs and spine were 'borrowed' to form the bony carapace - which is still fused to the ribs and spine - while the plastron developed from the shoulder girdle and breast bones, plus special floating 'dermal bones' found in the belly skin of ancient reptiles including crocodiles. Extensions from the plastron connect the plates at the sides. The bony shield was then eventually covered with tough keratin scales called scutes, based on reptile skin. Modern freshwater and marine turtles have land-dwelling ancestors.

Yellow-spotted River Turtle again - they are seemingly everywhere in the Amazon.
Carapace, plastron plus side extensions, and scutes are all obvious here.
Note too the broadly webbed and strongly clawed feet, plus the nostrils on the very
tip of the nose, for breathing while staying otherwise submerged.

Let's get the 'tortoise or turtle' thing out of the way now, before we get in deeper. It's pretty much a furphy really but there's confusion in Australia in particular because we use the terms differently from elsewhere. Traditionally we've pretty much reserved 'turtle' for the big ocean-going turtles, and 'tortoise' for everything else including the numerous freshwater species. I'm guessing that usage derived in the 19th century from English ancestors, but it may have been home-grown. It is likely that the absence of land-dwelling tortoises here influenced this too. In either case in modern-day Britain as well as elsewhere in the English-speaking world 'tortoise' is reserved for club-footed purely land-dwelling animals and everything else is a 'turtle'. That preference is starting to gain traction here too and it's how I'll be using it today.

 

The turtle world, comprising the Order Testudines for the record, is indeed divided into two, but not like that. As in many other groups of animals and plants, it looks as though this dichotomy had its origins in the times when the world was divided north and south, though it is probably not that simple. For our purposes it is only significant that one Suborder (the Pleuridines, or side-necked turtles) is solely southern today, in Australia, South America and Africa. As the name suggests, they tuck their neck away sideways into the shell where it fits neatly in front of one front leg.

Eastern Long-necked Turtle Chelodina longicollis. Its front is to the left,
and the folded back neck can be seen above my thumb. I've moved very many
turtles (mostly this species) off roads out of harm's way but be wary - they ungratefully
defend themselves with a foul-smelling secretion which you do not want on you or
your clothes!

The other Suborder (the Cryptodines, or hidden-necked turtles) pull their heads straight back in, between their front legs, folding their neck neatly into an S-shape. This, as you may imagine, requires a very different skeletal and muscular design, and the separation between the groups seems to go back to the Jurassic, 150-200 millon years ago.

The Malay, or Southeast Asian, Box Turtle Cuora amboinensis, here at Sepilok,
Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, is an example of the hidden-neckeds. Its short neck
is pulled straight back into the shell when threatened. It is found throughout
southeast Asia. Many species of box turtles are threatened in the wild both
by the demand for wild food in China, and the depredations of the
US pet industry.

However this group also contains all the tortoises and sea turtles, and is found on every non-frozen continent (and ocean) except Australia. Well, not quite. There is one species in Australia, the ancient and unique Pig-nosed Turtle Carettochelys insculpta found in a few Top End rivers, and in New Guinea. It is the only surviving member of its entire family, though fossil relations are widely known. It closest relations seem to be the soft-shelled turtles of Africa, Asia and North America.

Pig-nosed Turtle, Melbourne Aquarium. Unlike any other fresh-water turtle it has
flippers like a sea turtle. Its nostrils are at the end of a long snout, hence the common name.

It is still not well known to science, though of course Indigenous Top Enders have long known it well.

The six species of great sea turtles also belong in this Suborder. They have lost the ability to retract their head, though other factors place them in the group of hidden-neckeds. Their plastron is smaller than that of other turtles, and joined to the carapace only by ligaments. Perhaps their substantial size - carapace length across the species ranges from 70cm to over two metres - enables them to dispense with some protection. And of course they have flippers to enable them to cross vast ocean distances.

Green Turtle Chelonia mydas basking ashore, Galápagos.

By 90 million years ago huge turtles seemingly related to modern leatherbacks were feeding on squid in northern seas. The ancestors of other modern sea turtles arose about ten million years later.

Green Turtle, Galápagos. Adults feed on sea grass beds in shallow water.
However Green Turtles cover huge distances - up to 2500km - to breed,
and can be found across huge areas of the world's oceans where
temperatures are above ten degrees centigrade.

Females determine mating, which takes place in the water.

Green Turtles mating, Galápagos.

After that she comes ashore to dig a hole in the sand and lay up to 300 round white leathery eggs, 40-50mm across, which she buries. The youngsters hatch at night after 8-10 weeks and all head for the water, though few successfully run the gauntlet of predatory birds and crabs. Perhaps only 1% of hatchlings survives to maturity, but if they do they may live for 80 years.

Green Turtle tracks, Lady Elliott Island, Great Barrier Reef.
Within their huge range, Green Turtles are at their most abundant in the
Great Barrier Reef and the Caribbean.

Tortoises, totally land-dwelling animals without any foot adaptations to swimming, all belong to the Family Testudinidae, which is found everywhere except Australia (and of course Antarctica), especially in warmer drier environments.

Angulate Tortoise Chersina angulata, above (Bontebok NP, southwest South Africa)
and below (Augrabies Falls NP, northwest South Africa).
This very attractive tortoise is a South African endemic.

Angulate Tortoises from the drier inland, like this one, tend to be
darker and plainer, but I also wonder if age is a factor in this one.
This, being the only member of its genus, has no close relations.

The lovely Leopard Tortoise Stigmochelys pardalis, despite its apparent similarity
to the Angulate, is not closely related and is much more widely distributed, from
the Horn of Africa to eastern South Africa. Like all tortoises and turtles,
to my knowledge, it buries its eggs in soft soil.

Red-footed Tortoise Chelonoidis carbonarius, crossing the Transpantaneira Highway
in the Pantanal, south-western Brazil. Most tortoises are grazers but forest-dwelling
species like this one also eat fruit, invertebrates and carrion.

Interestingly, the famed Giant Tortoises of the Galápagos belong to the same genus as this, and their ancestors floated - either alone in the open ocean or on floating vegetation rafts - across the Pacific where they came ashore and their descendants gradually grew into giants. This is possible because tortoises can go months without eating or drinking. The same happened to produce the only other living giant tortoises, of the Seychelles in the Indian Ocean (and formerly the Mascarenes), though their ancestors sailed from Madagascar. Indeed until recently there were many giant tortoise species on islands including Malta, Cuba, the Bahamas, the Canaries and Madagascar, but humans destroyed them all. 

Western Santa Cruz Giant Tortoise Chelonoidis porteri, Santa Cruz, Galápagos, munching on grass.
In (the few) moister parts of the archipelago they can rely on this luxury, but elsewhere cactus
flesh and fruit are important food sources.

Until recently it was assumed that there was just one Galápagos tortoise species, but 12 living ones are now recognised, with another two or three recently becoming extinct. The islands rose sequentially from the ocean as they passed over a volcanic 'hot spot'. The oldest islands were colonised first, and later provided new colonists to younger islands as they arose.

One interesting aspect of these giants is the consistent existence within species of 'saddlebacked' and 'dome-backed' shell forms.

Saddlebacked form, Charles Darwin Research Station, Santa Cruz.
At that time different species weren't recognised. The shell rises to the front,
allowing the head to be raised.

Dome-shaped shell on a Sierra Negra Giant Tortoise C. guentheri
crossing the road on Isabela Island.

Saddlebacks tend to be smaller and live on lower drier islands. The dome-backs inhabit higher wetter habitats. It is suggested that the saddlebacks, in a more demanding situation, can reach higher to access tall cactuses, while the dome-backs can easily get enough grass low down. It has also been proposed that the adaptation may allow competing males to stretch higher to intimidate rivals and attract females. In this case it would be an advantage for the smaller animals to be able to reach high. It seems to me that the two explanations are not mutually exclusive.

The tortoises and sea turtles tend to get star billing in this group, but in terms of numbers the more modest freshwater turtles are predominant. Family Geoemydidae, which includes the box turtles we met earlier, has some 70 species across Europe, Asia and North America, with a smaller and presumably relatively recent incursion into South America.

Black River Turtles Rhinoclemmys funerea, here below the bridge at
La Selva Research Station in Costa Rica, are restricted to central America.

Which brings us back to the side-necked turtles, which (apart from the Pig-nosed Turtle) are the only ones we have in Australia; here they all belong to the Family Chelidae. This is an ancient Gondwanan family which first appeared some 100 million years ago and is restricted to Australia, New Guinea and associated islands, and South America. They are carnivores, using long necks and fast reactions to catch fish and small crustaceans. For courtesy I'll start with a couple of South Americans; we've already met the Yellow-spotted River Turtle in the genus Podocnemis but we didn't see its spots before - here they are!

Yellow-spotted River Turtle, Yasuní NP, Ecuador.

South American Snake-necked Turtle Hydromedusa tectifera Iguazu Falls, Argentina.

Our common local turtle is the Eastern Long-necked Turtle Chelodina longicollis, abundant in local waterways and dams. It's often encountered crossing roads, especially on a sunny day after rain, looking for new territory or a somewhere to lay eggs.

Eastern Long-necked Turtle, Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve near Canberra.
The long neck is evident here. They hunt by ambush, combined with a potent
'gape and suck' strategy. As the mouth gets close to the prey, it suddenly
and powerfully opens, creating a powerful suction action.

Elseya is a genus of six Australian species, plus three in New Guinea, known as the Australian snapping turtles (though they are mostly vegetarian, including floating fruits).

Northern Snapping Turtle Elseya dentata Howard Springs, south of Darwin.
It is found across northern Western Australia and the Northern Territory.

Saw-shelled Turtle Elseya (now usually described as Myuchelys) latisternum
Cumberland Dam, inland North Queensland.

Finally, Emydura, the short-necked turtles, of which six are currently recognised in Australia.

Krefft's Turtle Emydura kreftii, Centenary Lakes, Cairns.
It lives in the waterways of east coastal Queensland. The short neck
which characterises the genus is evident in this photo and the next.

Murray River Turtle Emydura macquarii, Melbourne Aquarium.
This is a widespread species in the Murray River basin, including most of NSW,
where it extends to the north coast.

I hope you has as much affection and admiration for these most ancient of vertebrates; but if you don't you've probably not read this far anyway. I find them truly wonderful.

NEXT POSTING THURSDAY 26 AUGUST

I love to receive your comments and in future will be notifying you personally by email when a new posting appears, if you'd like me to. All current subscribers have been added to this mailing list and have already been contacted.
This will mean one email every three weeks at the current rate of posting. 

I promise never to use the list for any other purpose and will never share it.
Should you wish to be added to it, just send me an email at calochilus51@internode.on.net.
You can ask to be removed from the list at any time,
or could simply mark an email as Spam, so you won't see future ones.

Thank you!

Augrabies Falls NP; a magnificent South African dryland

I first visited Augrabies Falls, up near the Namibian border in north-western South Africa, back in 2005 and was smitten by it. To the north, in Botswana and Namibia, is the mighty Kalahari Desert. The northern part of South Africa along the Orange River where Augrabies Falls thunders is sometimes known (mostly for tourism purposes) as the 'Green Kalahari', to reflect the irrigation production along the river.

I was travelling alone then but was embarking on the relationship that has come to define the rest of my life, and was determined to share this wild arid land with Lou one day. One of its attractions for me was that it reminded me in many ways of outback Australia, and we both feel passionately about that. Finally, just before COVID changed the world forever and shut down international travel for who knows how long, we managed to get there (and back!). This post is a record of a brief but memorable time there.

The wild wide rocky landscape of Augrabies Falls National Park.

The red arrow marks the approximate position of Augrabies Falls, on the Orange River
some 120km west of the thriving (and not entirely lovable) frontier town of Upington.

The park was declared in 1966 and protects some 50,000 hectares of semi-arid landscape surrounding the Orange River. The focus is the falls which crash 60 metres into a deep gorge which extends for nearly 20kms - and the rock it has chewed away is granite!

I would of course love to show you the full drama of the falls - they were pretty good when I was there in 2005 but that was pre-digital camera days for me - but the area was in severe drought at the time (as was most of Australia) so the falls were a relative trickle.

The falls are accessed by walking tracks and viewing platforms just below the very
comfortable cabin we stayed in. Even in its diminished state the sound of rushing
water could be heard all night, though somewhat muted. The name is an Afrikaans derivative
of the Nama name Akoerebis, meaning 'Place of Great Noise'.
The Nama, who still live in the area and contribute to the park's management, are descendants
of the Khoekhoen (or Khoikhoi) people, nomadic pastoralists who were the original inhabitants of the area, along with the San who were primarily hunters.

Compare this with the photos below, displayed on a board at the information centre, of the same falls during a wet year in 2010!

Downstream are access points to lookouts over the lower reaches of the gorge. Here the river has been temporarily reduced to near-stagnant pools; I don't know how much water is extracted upstream for irrigation.

Echo Corner.

Oranjekom Lookout.

However we were not just here for the water, and as I mentioned earlier the superb arid landscapes drew us right in. There is a series of drives (mostly accessible to non-4WDs, like our little hired vehicle), arranged so that at various points you can take a loop to return. They start with a shallow stream crossing (just shallow enough for us!) where the bushes were always busy with birds. 

A pool in the granite by the track, where birds came to drink.

After that we were in a magnificent arid rocky landscape, where every climb of the road revealed another superb vista. We chose a 66km loop option.

The vegetation is incredibly hardy (as any desert plants must be) with thorny acacias and tough grasses predominating. Succulents are also present (as they are mostly not in Australia), taking advantage of the rare rains to store water.

Slender Milk Bush Euphorbia dregeana; the 'milk' of the name refers to
the caustic milky sap common to most euphorbs.

Probably the most impressive plant of this part of the world however is the striking but endangered Quiver Tree, or Kokerboom, Aloidendron dichotomum in the family Asphodeleceae - a lily family which some of my Australian readers will know for the little Bulbine Lilies Bulbine spp. They are thus one of the few monocots (which are mostly herbs) to form a tree, along with palms.

They can seemingly grow in almost any substrate and are a substantial tree.

This big Kokerboom on the sandy plain is hosting the massive grass nest of
Sociable Weavers Philetairus socius, which breed colonially. We watched them flash in and
out of the nests, but didn't manage a photo unfortunately.

Kokerboom flowers; it's not clear what prompts flowering, but it's obviously not rain.

The most unusual bark of the tree was apparently used by San people for arrow quivers
(they are experts in preparing and using arrow poison), hence the English name.
Beneath the bark is not wood (monocots don't have 'real wood') but spongy tissue
which transports water.

There were gratifying numbers of birds - many of them were around the accommodation and park headquarters, with its enticing shade, plantings and water, but by no means all. The next few were ones we saw by our accommodation, or while sitting on the cafe verandah in the hot early afternoon.

Cape Bunting Emberiza capensis, a dapper little dweller of dry rocky landscapes -
just like Augrabies Falls in fact!

Karoo Scrub Robin Cercotrichas coryphaeus; another dry southern African
specialist. African scrub robins are not all related to the Australian robins (or to
North American ones either) but are Old World flycatchers, like the European Robin.
The English naming of African birds is as confusing as it is in Australia.

Sickle-winged Chat Emarginata sinuata; all the comments about the previous bird
apply to this one too, including its naming. It too is an Old World flycatcher.

Pale-winged Starling Onychognathus nabouroup. This arid land starling has learnt
at Augrabies to hang around the restaurant in hope of handouts or leftovers.

Red-eyed Bulbuls Pycnonotus nigricans are also dryland birds (as you must be to live here)
which readily adapt to human habitations.

Speckled Pigeons Columba guinea are also happy to share our dwelling places, regularly nesting in buildings.

These two were coming for a slightly risky drink at the falls.

Out on the plains and hills birds weren't quite as easy to observe, but they were there. Africa is rich in larks, especially in open country. Coming from a country where there is only one native species, this is a bit of an eye-opener.

Spike-heeled Lark Chersomanes albofasciata, displaying its distinctive 'heels'.

Sabota Lark Calendulauda sabota; sabota is the general word in Tswana (or Setswana),
widely spoken in north-western South Africa, for a lark. 

White-throated Canary Crithagra albogularis. Yes, there are plenty of 'real' wild
canaries out there, including this one from the dry south-west of the continent.

And of course there are plenty of birds of prey out there, waiting for an unwary animal - mammal, reptile, bird or insect, depending on the size of both predator and prey - to make a mistake. Here are a couple that we admired.

Immature Martial Eagle Polemaetus bellicosus on a distant ridge top.These are huge powerful
predators which will hunt hares, hyraxes (see below), small antelope, jackals, large reptiles,
guinea fowl, bustards - pretty well anything in the medium size range.

Pale Chanting Goshawks Melierax canorus feed on smaller prey including mammals, birds,
reptiles, insects and even carrion across dry southern Africa.

Which brings us to some of the other animals; given that we didn't go out at night, we did quite well there too, though reptiles were a bit thin on the ground. Surprisingly this included the famed lizards which swarm around the rocks along the falls walks - they certainly did so around my feet on the previous visit. This time though, doubtless because of the drought, they were few and scattered. Luckily there were still a few though!

Augrabies Flat Lizard Platysaurus broadleyi; the sun wasn't cooperating with this photo (!)
so we can't really appreciate his glorious colours. His remarkable shape, for slipping into
safe rock crevices, is evident however.

Angulate Tortoise Chersina angulata by the road;
this hardy small tortoise is sadly threatened by the illegal pet trade, apparently.
Fortunately not this one, I imagine.

I mentioned hyraxes earlier; these are odd and endearing little characters, most of whom live among rocks - and whose closest (albeit still distant!) relatives are elephants. There are five living species, all in Africa. The most best known of these is the Cape Hyrax Procavia capensis, found widely in Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. As we walked along the tracks to the falls, young hyraxes were chasing and tumbling on steep rock faces above a sheer drop to the waters. Not their elders though.

Rock Hyrax dozing on some comfortable granite in the late sun.

There are quite a few mammal predators in the park, up to the size of Leopards, though unsurprisingly we didn't see those. We did enjoy a couple of species of mongoose, which I find delightful.

Small Grey Mongoose Galerella pulverulenta which was cautiously investigating
the situation in bushland alongside the restaurant, after most people had left.

Yellow Mongoose Cynictis penicillata in a now quiet late afternoon picnic ground.
Like the previous species, the Yellow Mongoose is comfortable around humans.

I'm a fan of antelopes (as I am of most wild animals!) and Augrabies hosts a good array, though none more handsome than the big strong Gemsbok, one of six species of desert-loving oryx.

Gemsbok Oryx gazella, at home in the wild rocky landscape of Augrabies Falls.

Red Hartebeest Alcelaphus caama - another big, and generally solitary antelope.

Kalahari Springboks Antidorcas hofmeyri nibbling on a very hard and thorny shrub.
You'd think that going to South Africa might mean automatic springboks, but they're not
quite that easy. In recent times three species have been recognised rather than just one - this one,
an eastern South African species and one from Angola.

Cape Klipspringer Oreotragus oreotragus. This stocky little character is one of my
favourite antelopes, specialising in cliffs and rock outcrops, a sort of African
rock-wallaby. Augrabies is one of the best places to see them, as they are common in the
park, including near the vehicle tracks, and are not fazed by traffic.
New biochemical and genetic tools have now allowed us to recognise 11 klipspringers,
rather than just one!

Finally I was delighted when we came across giraffes in this desert landscape; I'm always delighted by giraffe encounters but this was quite unexpected, as I'd not seen them here previously. Whether this was just chance, or due to increased population or even a recent reintroduction, I can't say. As I say, a delight though.

Southern, or Cape Giraffe Giraffa giraffa.
Not just springboks can defeat the thorny plant protectors; these huge browsers
seemed quite immune to them.

I hadn't really thought of giraffes in a desert, but these certainly seemed at home.

Augrabies Falls is probably not on most travellers' South African 'to do' lists; if you're interested enough to be reading my blog though, I reckon it should definitely be on yours. Especially after a rainy season!

A couple of sunsets, enjoyed from the verandah of our cabin, to finish with.

NEXT POSTING THURSDAY 22 APRIL
And remember that you can get a reminder when the next post appears by putting your email address in the Follow by Email box in the top right of this screen.
I'd love to receive your comments - it's easy and you don't need to sign in!

However, this reminder service is becoming increasingly unreliable and I have
no control over it. I keep hearing of people who are no longer getting
notifications of new postings and I'm losing readership presumably as a result.
You might like to set a calendar alert as a back-up to avoid missing out.
Alternatively, if you'd like to send me an email (to calochilus51@internode.on.net)
I can put together a mailing list to send out whenever a post goes up;
I guarantee never to use your address for any other purpose.
Thank you!